Articole

După încheierea perioadei 2011-2012 referitoare la activitatea Enterprise Europe Network, Directoratul General pentru Întreprinderi şi Industrie al Comisiei Europene (DG ENTR) a fost de părere că organizaţiile membre ale Enterprise Europe Network ar trebui să organizeze un număr mai mic de evenimente care să se adreseze unor grupuri mai restrânse de antreprenori. Cu alte cuvinte, evenimentele mai mici pot fi mai personalizate şi mai concentrate pe nevoile antreprenorilor şi astfel eficienţa acestora va creşte.

Luând în considerare sugestiile făcute de DG ENTR, două organizaţii membre Enterprise Europe Network din România (Centrul de Transfer Tehnologic CENTI Cluj-Napoca şi Agenţia pentru Dezvoltare Regională Centru – ADR Centru Alba Iulia) şi o organizaţie din Ungaria, au pus la punct detaliile organizării unei Misiuni economice destinate firmelor din industria lemnului, exploatare forestieră şi utilizarea durabilă a biomasei.

Evenimentul a avut loc la Braşov în data de 29 mai 2014, cu ocazia Expoziţiei Internaţionale de Industria Lemnului şi Exploatării Forestiere, EXPOWOOD, desfăşurată în perioada 22–25 mai 2014 în Sala de Expoziţii Roman, Braşov.

La eveniment au participat 4 firme din Ungaria şi, respectiv, 22 firme din Transilvania.

Evenimentul organizat de Enterprise Europe Network a inclus vizitarea expoziţiei EXPOWOOD 2014, întâlniri şi discuţii cu firmele prezente la târg, dar şi vizite la 2 firme din zona Braşov. Reprezentanţii celor trei organizaţii Enterprise Europe Network din România şi Ungaria s-au ocupat cu atenţie de fiecare client care a participat la întâlnirea de afaceri, analizând în prealabil profilul de activitate al fiecărei firme şi identificând nevoile acestora de afaceri, oferindu-le astfel posibilitatea de a întâlni potenţiali parteneri de afaceri potriviţi. Pe parcursul discuţiilor purtate, reprezentanţii organizaţiilor membre Enterprise Europe Network au asistat firmele, în vederea facilitării negocierilor dintre acestea.

Rezultatul a fost deosebit de benefic, pentru că firmele înscrise la eveniment, cunoscând deja activitatea desfăşurată de potenţialii parteneri precum şi intenţiile acestora de colaborare în afaceri, au reuşit sa intre în contact cu firmele cu care au dorit, economisind astfel timp si energie.

Firmele participante la eveniment au fost foarte mulţumite de rezultatele obţinute, iar partenerii Enterprise Europe Network au decis că vor organiza şi pe viitor astfel de evenimente complexe, adresate unui grup restrâns de firme.

Vineri, 28.03.2014, DG Enterprise and Industry a lansat o consultare publică pe tema etichetării produselor alimentare, destinată IMM-urilor care operează în sectorul alimentar.

Obiectivul consultării este acela de a colecta informații și date cantitative cu privire la caracteristicile IMM-urilor care ar putea fi afectate și la evaluarea modului în care diversele variante propuse ar putea avea un impact asupra acestora, în vederea stabilirii de către Comisia Europeană a viitoarelor sale iniţiative cu privire la etichetarea produselor alimentare.

Chestionarul care stă la baza consultării publice se adresează operatorilor din sectorul alimentar, inclusiv producătorilor de produse proaspete/produse agricole ușor procesate, procesatorilor/producătorilor de produse alimentare procesate, comercianților de produse agricole/alimentare (inclusiv pentru import/export), comercianților și companiilor de catering. Această consultare vizează companiile care vând produse destinate consumului final, precum și produse destinate unei procesări ulterioare.

Consultarea publică lansată acoperă întregul lanț de aprovizionare, de la producția materiei prime la vânzarea către consumatori, inclusiv produsele alimentare livrate de companiile de catering, pentru trei categorii de produse alimentare preambalate:

• produse neprocesate, cum ar fi orez și legume deshidratate, făină de grâu, precum și alte produse considerate ca produse neprocesate de legislația UE;
• produse alimentare obținute pe baza unui singur ingredient, cum ar fi ulei vegetal, suc de fructe, cafea, zahăr, pastă tomate, fructe și legume congelate;
• produse al căror ingredient principal reprezintă mai mult de 50 % din compoziția produsului final, cum ar fi tomate în sos de tomate, pâine sau paste din făină de grâu, ton în conserva.

Datele obținute de la IMM-uri, în cadrul acestei consultări, vor fi folosite Raportul Comisiei Europene privind etichetarea produselor alimentare.

Studiul conținând rezultatele centralizării și analizei răspunsurilor IMM-urilor la această consultare, precum și Raportul Comisiei vor fi publicate ulterior, pe următorul website: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm

Prin completarea chestionarului legat de consultarea publică lansată de Comisia Europeană, puteţi  să furnizaţi informații utile și să influențaţi direcţia viitoarelor inițiative Europene privitoare la etichetarea produselor alimentare.

Dacă doriţi ca să contribuiţi la viitoarele iniţiative ale Comisiei Europene referitoare la etichetarea produselor alimentare, vă rugăm să completaţi chestionarul pe care îl găsiţi aici (nu vă va lua decât 10 minute) şi să ni-l retrimiteţi pe mail: centi@icia.ro sau fax: 0264 420667 până cel târziu 15 mai 2014.

FOARTE IMPORTANT! ŞI PĂREREA DUMNEAVOASTRĂ CONTEAZĂ!

Prof. eng. Alexandru Naghiu, PhD
Eng. Mircea Stefan Chintoanu
Prof.eng. Nicolae Burnete, PhD

alnaghiu@yahoo.com

Key words: biodiesel, integrate system, agriculture, farm

Abstract. The paper presents a biodiesel producing & use integrate system adaptable for agricultural farms in a decentralized manner. Different elements (key actions) of the design system are analyzed in respect of energy efficiency and environment protection.

The study pointed out that Romanian agriculture has all the necessary conditions to develop a sustenable biodiesel production & use and a network of farms working independently of fossil fuels and supplying the biodiesel for the engines used in the protected areas.

The proposed biofuel integrate system has been started to be implemented in a farm & association from Cluj county.

Introduction

Energy is the essence of life and one of the most basic of human needs, not as an end in itself but as a means to numerous ends. The taming of fire was one of human kinds earliest technological achievements. It provided energy for heat and light on demand. But today the environmental impacts of the world’s power plants, internal combustion engines and boilers have serious implications for the future health and well being of the planet.

According to the demands of the technological development and the life quality increasing, during the last 50 years, global consumption of commercial energy has risen more than fourfold, far outpacing the rise in population and all this energy comes from natural resources whether fossil fuels such as coal and oil, living resources such as timber and biomass, nuclear fuel such as uranium, or renewable resources such as flowing water and wind and the power of the sun.

A generation ago, there was concern that fossil fuels would run out, plunging the world into an energy crisis. Today the fear is that their continued use might be wrecking the global climate by emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) as we burn carbon-containing fuels (see fig. 1 and table 1). This anxiety is substantially increased in view of the considerable unmet demand for energy in the developing world. It is estimated that since 1751 roughly 283 billion tons of carbon have been released to the atmosphere from the consumption of fossil fuels and cement production. Half of these emissions have occurred since the mid 1970s. The 2000 global, fossil-fuel CO2 emission estimate, 6611 million metric tons of carbon, represents a 1.8% increase from 1999. The average annual fossil-fuel release for the decade 1990-1999 was 6.35 billion tons of carbon.

Globally, liquid and solid fuels accounted for 76.8% of the emissions from fossil-fuel burning in 2000. Combustion of gas fuels accounted for 19.3% (1277 million metric tons of carbon) of the total emissions from fossil fuels in 2000 and reflects a gradually increasing global utilization of natural gas. Emissions from cement production (226 million metric tons of carbon in 2000) have doubled since the mid 1970s and now represent 3.4% of global CO2 releases from fossil-fuel burning and cement production. Gas flaring, which accounted for roughly 2% of global emissions during the 1970s, now accounts for less than 1% of global fossil-fuel releases.

Table 1

CO emissions of the first country polluters

Exposure to air pollution is associated with numerous effects on human health, including respiratory problems, hospitalization for heart or lung diseases, and even premature death. Children are at greater risk because they are generally more active outdoors and their lungs are still developing. The elderly and people with heart or lung diseases are also more sensitive to some types of air pollution. Air pollution can also significantly affect ecosystems. For example, ground-level ozone has been associated with reductions of agricultural and commercial forest yields, and airborne releases of NOx are one of the largest sources of nitrogen pollution in certain water bodies.

In this context the use of “clean” fuels for the internal combustion engines is more than a desire is a necessity. Rodolfo Diesel, the father of the compression combustion engines, has foreseen the biofuels use. So, in 1900 he presented at the World Exhibition from Paris an engine working with peanut oil.

By economical considerations the biofuels use was abandoned till the beginning of ’70 when the petroleum crisis putted on table the problem alternative fuels.

Under the pressure of the XXI century environmental demands (expressed synthetically in the Kyoto Protocol that was signed by more than 160 countries) the use of biofuels in the case of diesel engines has been reconsidered, especially for the engines working in the most protected areas as communal domains, agriculture, sylviculture and tourist regions (including lakes for nautical sports).

Romania was one of the first industrialized countries that have ratification the Kyoto Protocol and so, has assumed responsibilities in pollution reduction. In this direction, biofuel use is an important element.

Biodiesel integrate system for producing and use in agriculture

Agriculture is an efficient energy provider, by converting the solar energy during the photosynthesis in biomass energy. Part of the harvest biomass can used for different biofuels production covering the fuel technological necessities.

In the present paper the authors are proposing an integrate system for biodiesel production and use in the agricultural farms based on the rape crop (fig. 2). This system includes eight main levels: crop technology, oil expeller, oil esterification, biodiesel use in internal combustion engines equipping agricultural tractors, oil cake use in animal breeding, bee keeping (melliferous use of rape crop), esterification sub products use and environmental monitoring.

There are about 1700 plants the can offer an oil suitable for use as fuel in the internal combustion engines. From these only 72 can represent a commercial interest. According to the natural conditions for agriculture from Romania, the winter rapeseed oil (WRO) and its methyl ester (RME) represents one of the best choices of the alternative fuels.

Crop technology. The rape crop requires a precise technology that includes high level seedbed preparation, low/medium level of chemical treatments and high quality harvesting combines. The crop yield varies between 2,5 and 3,2 t/ha.

The actual gross energy consumption for rape cultivation including fertilizers and pesticides corresponds to the general average in farming excluding fertilizers and pesticides. An increase in the rape production area will therefore not increase the total gross energy consumption in agriculture.

Oil expeller & esterification. Unlike ethanol, which is an alcohol, biodiesel is an ester (similar to vinegar) that can be made from several types of oils such as soybean, rapeseed, and vegetable or animal fats. Through a process called transesterification, organically derived oils are combined with alcohol (ethanol or methanol) and chemically altered to form fatty esters such as ethyl or methyl ester. The biomass-derived ethyl or methyl esters can be blended with conventional diesel fuel or used as a neat fuel (100% biodiesel).

The cold pressed rape seed oil presents the energetically and environmentally best alternative to fossil diesel with a strongly positive energy and CO2 balance. The use of rape seed oil for transport can substitute, after a minor modification of the engine, the agricultural sector’s own fuel consumption. The oil presents no fire and health hazards, and it is unpolluting. The oil is pressed in an unexpensive plant with a low energy consumption, and the whole production can take place at the individual farm so the fodder cakes can be used on site or be sold locally.

Biodiesel can substitute fossil diesel right away. However, biodiesel presents health and fire hazards in itself, and it is polluting. The pressing and the following esterification faze comprise an industrial process with a high energy consumption which requires an expensive, decentralised or decentralized production plant.

It can be estimated that at an oil production of 580.000 tons corresponds to 604 million litres rape seed oil equaling 580 million litres of diesel (this amounts about 32 TJ).

Animal fodder. A fodder cake production of 560.000 tons equals 623 million fodder units (FU), 20% of the total consumption of protein fodder of 3131 million FU.

We can estimate that by cultivation of winter rape, the total fuel consumption of the Romanian agricultural sector could be covered on a good 18 % of the arable area along with covering 25 % of the protein fodder consumption and about 80 % of agriculture’s total gross energy consumption.

The secondary system product is the rape cake that can be used successfully in the animal breeding sector. The fodder value and energy content in rape cakes from cold pressing of rape seed oil are presented in the table 1 and table 2.

Table 1

Table 2

Bee keeping. Very interesting is the melliferous use of rape crop as bee keeping is an important component of the Romanian agriculture (for centuries) and honey an important export product.

The proposed integrate system for biodiesel producing and use has a high-energy efficiency and represents a feasible solution for a further national energy strategy development (see table 3).

Table 3

Energy efficiency of the integrate system for biodiesel producing & use in agriculture (at a minim yield of 3,2 t/ha)

Conclusions

The study carried on pointed out some conclusions from which the most important are considered to be:

1. Humanity has at its disposition enough fossil energy carriers for several centuries, if it accept increasing prices
2. At the actual technological & economical stage the humanity is not able to change to renewable energies quickly enough to solve global warming
3. Renewable energies will come in operation step by step when they become competitive or they have support from the governments
4. According to the natural conditions for agriculture from Romania, the winter rapeseed oil (WRO) and its methyl ester (RME) represents the best choice of the alternative fuels.
5. There is a great unused potential for rape cultivation in Romanian agriculture.
6. All the integrate system fazes are suitable for farm implementing.
7. A lot of the Romanian farmers are determinate to implement the proposed integrate system for biodiesel producing & use.

References

1. Bryce, J. T. et al. The Kyoto Protocol: Greenhouse Gas Emissions and the Agricultural Sector. CSALE Working Paper Series, vol. 1, no.1, Saskatchewan: Centre for Studies in Agriculture, Law and the Environment, 1999.
2. Burnete, N., Naghiu, Al., Teberean, I., Filip, N., TodoruÅ£, A., Barabas, I., Borza, E., Coldea Cr., Vlad, N., Bacu, Fl., Costea, A., Mixes of the diesel fuel with vegetal oil – alternative fuel for the diesel engines, în: Proceedings of the CONAT 2004 Congress, Conat20042114
3. W.Körbitz, Biodiesel: A Summary of Environmental Benefits, Austrian Biofuels Institute ABI, Vienna, 1998
4. Naghiu, Al, Naghiu, Livia., Baza energetică pentru agricultură, horticultură şi silvicultură, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2003
5. Naghiu, Al., Burnete, N., Studies upon the biofuels production and use, în: Buletinul USAMV-CN, A-H, 60/2004 (-) ISSN 1454-2382, pg. 453
6. C.L.Peterson, Biodiesel fuel production/properties, Proceedings of the 3rd Liquid Fuel Conference of ASAE, Nashville, USA ( 1996)
7. G.Vellguth, Energetische Nutzung von Rapsöl und Rapsölmethylester, Dokumentation Nachwachsende Rohstoffe (1991),
8. * * * , ‘Biofuels’, European Commission, DG XII, Eur.15647 EN (1994)

Prof. Alexandru Naghiu, PhD
Eng. Mircea Stefan Chintoanu
Prof. Nicolae Burnete, PhD
eng. Adriana Paula David

alnaghiu@yahoo.com

Key words: biodiesel, potential, agriculture, bio energy, pollution

Abstract. The paper presents the Romanian potential for biofuels production and use in the European context. A strong knowledge and expertise exists in Romania in this area, both for biochemical and thermochemical systems. It started years ago (in early ’80ies) and knows to day an exponential development.

The study pointed out that Romanian agriculture has all the necessary conditions to develop a sustainable biodiesel production & use and to become one of the most important European producer of biofuels. In the same time the production of fuels that protect the environment as well as provide an economical and sustainable source of income in the rural areas is extremely important for Romania.

It will be necessary, while supporting the implementation of currently available biofuels, to promote the transition towards second generation biofuels, which will be produced from a wider range of feedstock and which will help to reduce costs of “saved” CO2

Energy, pollution and biofuels

According to the demands of the technological development and the life quality increasing, during the last 50 years, global consumption of commercial energy has risen more than fourfold, far outpacing the rise in population and all this energy comes from natural resources whether fossil fuels such as coal and oil, living resources such as timber and biomass, nuclear fuel such as uranium, or renewable resources such as flowing water and wind and the power of the sun [1]. A generation ago, there was concern that fossil fuels would run out, plunging the world into an energy crisis. Today the fear is that their continued use might be wrecking the global climate by emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) as we burn carbon-containing fuels. This anxiety is substantially increased in view of the considerable unmet demand for energy in the developing world [6].

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is an amendment to the international treaty on climate change, assigning mandatory emission limitations for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to the signatory nations. It covers now more than 160 countries globally and has as objective the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases (methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, HFCs, and PFCs), or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

According to the Kyoto Protocol Governments are separated into two general categories: developed countries, referred to as Annex I countries (who have accepted greenhouse gas emission reduction obligations and must submit an annual greenhouse gas inventory); and developing countries, referred to as Non-Annex I countries (who have no greenhouse gas emission reduction obligations but may participate in the Clean Development Mechanism). By 2008-2012, Annex I countries have to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by a collective average of 5% below their 1990 levels (for many countries, such as the EU member states, this corresponds to some 15% below their expected greenhouse gas emissions in 2008). Any Annex I country that fails to meet its Kyoto obligation will be penalized by having to submit 1,3 emission allowances in a second commitment period for every ton of greenhouse gas emissions they exceed their cap in the first commitment period.

The EU road transport sector accounts for more than 30% of the total energy consumption in the Community. Actually, it is 98 % dependent on fossil fuels with a high share of imports and thus extremely vulnerable to oil market disturbance [7]. The growing transport sector is considered to be one of the main reasons for the EU failing to meet the Kyoto targets as it is expected an increase of 90 % of the CO2 emissions between 1990 and 2010.

Considering these circumstances Europe has defined ambitious targets for the biofuels development. The aim is to improve European domestic energy security, improve the overall CO2 balance and sustain European competitiveness. The development of innovative biofuel technologies will help to reach these objectives.

The current production of liquid biofuels in the EU is about 2 Mtoe, which is less than 1 % of the market. Although there have been marked increases in production and use in recent years, the market share is at risk of failing the EU policy target for 2010 of 18 Mtoe used in the transport sector.

The EU has a significant potential for the production of biofuels. It is estimated that between 4 and 18 % of the total agricultural land in the EU would be needed to produce the amount of biofuels to reach the level of liquid fossil fuel replacement required for the transport sector in the Directive 2003/30/EC. Furthermore, biofuels can contribute to the EU’s objectives of securing the EU fuel supply while improving the greenhouse gas balance and fostering the development of a competitive European (biofuels and other) industry.

An ambitious and achievable vision for 2030 is that up to one quarter of the EU’s transport fuel needs could be met by clean and CO2-efficient biofuels. A substantial part will be provided by a competitive European industry, using a wide range of biomass resources, based on sustainable and innovative technologies. Biofuel development will create opportunities for biomass providers, biofuel producers and the automotive industry. Also, the European technology will be used in 2030 in many countries exporting biofuels to Europe.

Reaching the vision means considerably increasing domestic biofuel production, while balancing it with international biofuel trade. This will not only require substantial investment in biomass production, harvesting, distribution and processing, but also calls for agreed biofuel and biofuel-blend standards.

The majority of engines available in 2030 will require liquid fuels, although their molecular composition might have evolved from today’s fuels. It will be beneficial if the new fuels are similar to, or at least compatible with, today’s fuel types and specifications. Ability to mix fuels from alternative sources with current, conventional fuels without jeopardising the standard fuel specifications, and making use of existing infrastructure, is a very effective means for the implementation of these fuels.

Thus, the challenge is to increase substantially the production of biofuels that are commercially viable, CO2-efficient and compatible with vehicle engines, by using innovative processes and technologies. To achieve this, it is necessary, while supporting the implementation of currently available biofuels, to promote the transition towards “second generation biofuels”, which will be produced from a wider range of feedstock (including waste biomass), reduce competition for land and food, and which will help to reduce costs of “saved” CO2.

According to these realities research and development are paramount in reaching the vision. A phased development is envisaged based on short-term improvement of existing feedstock and technologies, RTD&D (research, technology development and demonstration) and commercial production of 2nd generation biofuels (mainly from lignocellulosic biomass), RTD&D and implementation of full-scale integrated biorefineries, and new energy crops.

For supply of the biomass feedstock, sustainable land strategies must be created that are compatible with the climatic, environmental and socio-economic conditions prevailing in each region. In Romania the BIOCOMB Consortium is responsible for the National Strategy for Biofuels and Biomass Action Plan designing.

The production and use of both the primary and residual forms from agricultural, forestry and industrial operations must be promoted. In the same time, the research on improving crop yields and energy input/output, as well as key quality characteristics using advanced technologies, should be taken carefully into account.

Romanian biofuels potential

Agriculture is an efficient energy provider, by converting the solar energy during the photosynthesis in biomass energy. Part of the harvest biomass can used for different biofuels production covering the fuel technological necessities.

With a surface area of 238,393 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. In the same time, Romania has very harmonious physical features: 31% of Romania’s surface is covered by mountains, 33% by hills and tablelands, and 35% by plains. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the centre of Romania, with fourteen of its peaks reaching above the altitude of 2,000 metres. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the Bărăgan Plains. Romania’s geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna. The country has the largest brown bear population in Europe, while chamois are also known to live in the Carpathian Mountains, which dominate the centre of Romania.

Of the total surface of the country (237,500 km2), 62 % represents agricultural land, 26,7 % is forest, 3,7 % is covered by water and 7,3% represents other surfaces (fig. 1).

From the agricultural surface (total 9398500 ha, from which 7012666 ha EU eligible) main part is arable land and the rest of it is divided between pastures, hayfields and vineyards & orchards (fig. 2).

The two pathways presently used in Europe at large scale are (see table 1): ethanol production from sugar crops or starch (grain crops) and bio-diesel from oil-seed crops (rapeseed, sunflower, soy bean and other raw materials) converted into methyl esters (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester or FAME). Actually, in Romania biodiesel production is the most used technology for biofuels.

Ethanol can be incorporated in the gasoline pool, but only to a limited percentage (at present 5 %, based on the current gasoline norm EN228) without engine modifications. Some ethanol is also used as a 85 % blend (E85) in flexible fuel cars, mixed with diesel using a stabilizing additive (e-diesel), and as fuel for diesel buses (with ignition improver). The most frequent use of ethanol in Europe at present is, however, through conversion into derivatives such as ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) (etherification of ethanol and isobutene, a by-product of refinery processes), although they may have (like other etheroxygenates) some disadvantages, such as potential ground water contamination. Its use can also be limited by the availability of isobutene.

Pressed vegetable oil as such has been tested in vehicle fleets with controversial results. Conversion of oil of biological origin (plants/animals) by esterification with methanol results in a fuel widely accepted by diesel engineers. It is used both in pure form and admixed to diesel from mineral oil. Esterification of oils from biological origin with bioethanol will be discussed further in order to generate biodiesel independent from fossil fuels. Today, fossil methanol is used for the esterification. A better option in the future would be to use bio-methanol in the FAME production, or the production of Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester (FAEE) bio-ethanol instead of methanol.

The production of biogas is a third available pathway, but it is very limited at the moment, in Romania. It can be either produced in dedicated facilities from organic wastes or recovered from municipal solid waste landfills. The recovery of biogas is important not only as a resource, but also for avoiding the discharge of a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Upgraded biogas compressed at a pressure around 200 bar can be used as an engine fuel. This option has to be better assessed, but presently represents a niche market.

Table 1

Biofuels first two generations

A strong knowledge and expertise exists in Romania in this area, both for biochemical and thermochemical systems. It started years ago (in early ’80ies) and knows to day an exponential development.

Currently, agricultural and forestry systems exploit only part of their production, i.e. “primary” products, while they leave unexploited significant “residual” quantities. The use of both the primary and the residual resources through integrated and sustainable pathways should be promoted. It will also be necessary to utilize biomass fractions that are presently discarded and to make the best use of the whole plant. Specific non-food, high yield biomass can be developed but needs to take account of issues, such as biodiversity and labor conditions.

Dedicated energy feedstock in the form of energy crops represents for Romania a promising outlet to security of supply issues for future biofuel production. Like the other biomass resources, they can be converted into virtually any energy form. However, their main advantage is that they can be developed to optimize key characteristics for energy applications and their sustained production can better ensure long term large-scale supplies with uniform characteristics. Energy crops may also have significantly higher yields per unit of land area than natural stands. These higher yields improve their cost effectiveness over conventional crops and minimize land requirements, associated chemical use, and hauling requirements.

Developing innovative technologies can secure new jobs in rural areas, but also within industrial companies. The employment balance of biofuels is estimated to be about 16 jobs per ktoe, nearly all in rural areas (each 1 % proportion of biofuels in total fossil fuel consumption will create between 45000 and 75000 new jobs in rural areas). Innovative technologies are needed to produce biofuels in an energy efficient way, from a wider range of biomass resources and to reduce costs. The options, which will be developed, need to be sustainable in economic, environmental and social terms, and bring the Romanian industry to a leading position. This means that apart from purely economic factors, e.g. investment, operating cost, and productive capacity, other factors have to be taken into account such as the greenhouse gas and energy balances, the potential competition with food production and the impact of biomass production on the environment.

Conclusions

The study carried on pointed out some conclusions from which the most important are considered to be:

• Humanity has at its disposition enough fossil energy carriers for several centuries, if it accept increasing prices. Renewable energies will come in operation step by step when they become competitive or they have support from the governments.
• To ensure the reduction of CO2 emissions, a market mechanism will be required to ensure that CO2-efficiency of bio-fuels is acknowledged and rewarded. Mechanisms (e.g. a certification scheme) could be used to promote the production and use of “more CO2-effective” biofuels.
• Agriculture and forest-derived material must be processed on a decentralised basis to avoid uneconomic shipping costs. An option to be considered is pre-processing difficult to handle biomass and transporting the processed form. This is more efficient both in terms of energy value per transport unit and reduced costs.
• There is a great unused potential for energy crops cultivation in Romanian agriculture.
• According to its natural conditions for agriculture, Romania can be one of the most important biofuels producer in Europe. Here can be easily produced about 2,5 106 t of biofuels on the non subvention agricultural land.
• In important challenge is to increase substantially the production of biofuels by using innovative processes and technologies, which are both competitive and sustainable.
• It will be necessary, while supporting the implementation of currently available biofuels, to promote the transition towards second generation biofuels, which will be produced from a wider range of feedstock and which will help to reduce costs of “saved” CO2.

References

1. Naghiu, Al, Apostu, S., Green energy a challange of the third millenium society, Proceedings of the Vth AIMPN Congress, Cluj-Napoca, 2006
2. Naghiu, Al, Naghiu, Livia., Baza energetică pentru agricultură, horticultură şi silvicultură (Energy base for agriculture and forestry), Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2003
3. Naghiu, Al., Burnete, N., Renewable energy – A challenge to agricultural farms, in Trakia Journal of Sciences, Vol. 3, No.6, pp 1-7, ISSN 1312-1723, Stara-Zagora, 2005
4. Naghiu, Al., Bataga, N., Maurer, K., Studies upon the possibilities of biofuel use in the case of engines with wall film injection system. ESFR, Pitesti, 1997.
5. * * * , ‘Biofuels’, European Commission, DG XII, Eur.15647 EN (1994)
6. * * * , (2006) World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency – IEA
7. * * * , (2006) Biofuels in the European Union, A vision for 2030 and beyond. Final draft report of the Biofuels Research Advisory Council, Buxelles